Insulin and Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) induce Hypoxia-inducible factor 1 alpha subunit (HIF1A) [1], [2] and HIF-induced Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression [1], ...

Interleukin-4 (IL-4) is a T cell derived multifunctional cytokine that plays a critical role in the regulation of immune responses. IL-4 induces Th2 (T helper 2) differentiation, causes macrophage suppression, and stimulates B cell production of Immunoglobulins E, G1 and G4 (IgE, ...

Interferons (IFNs) are pleiotropic cytokines that mediate anti-viral responses, inhibit proliferation and participate in immune surveillance and tumor suppression by inducing the transcription of a number of IFN-stimulated genes. The IFN family includes two main classes of related cytokines, type ...

There are two families of transcription factors that play pivotal roles during mammalian skeletal muscle differentiation. One of them includes MyoD family proteins (also called myogenic regulatory factors or MRFs), with four members Myf5, Myogenic differentiation 1 (MYOD), Myogenin (MYOG), ...

Epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) belongs to the ERBB family of receptor tyrosine kinases that contains four closely related members EGFR and ERBB2-4. They couple the binding of the extracellular growth factor ligands to intracellular signaling pathways that regulate diverse ...

Cell migration is a coordinated process that involves rapid changes in the dynamics of actin filaments, together with the formation and disassembly of cell adhesion sites. External stimuli that control cell migration are transduced into intracellular biochemical signals through the interactions of ...

Guanine nucleotide binding protein (G-proteins) are heterotrimeric signaling molecules composed of three subunits, alpha, beta, and gamma, which dissociate receptor-induced exchange on the alpha subunit and beta/gamma heterodimer subunit. The G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) initiate diverse ...

The commencement of the cell cycle coincides with the production and the stabilization of the Cyclin D. The D-type cyclins are essential for synchronization of the cell cycle machinery with extracellular signals. [1] Expression and stability of Cyclin D is ...

TGF-beta 1 initiates ...

Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a pleiotropic cytokine produced by various types of lymphoid and nonlymphoid cells, such as T cells, B cells, monocytes, fibroblasts, keratinocytes, endothelial cells, mesangial cells and several tumor cells. IL-6 provokes a broad range of cellular and physiological responses, ...