Both the Hedgehog and the Parathyroid hormone receptor (PTHR) signaling pathways take part in bone and cartilage development (12082161): Parathyroid hormone-like hormone (PTHrP) stimulates osteogenic cell proliferation [1]; Sonic hedgehog homolog (SHH) ...

Osteoporosis is a common disease affecting the majority of older women and a significant minority of older men. It is defined as the gradual reduction in bone strength with advancing age, particularly in post-menopause women. Osteoporosis is one of the major and growing health care problems around ...

Multicellular organisms are separated from external environment by a layer of epithelial cells whose integrity is maintained by intercellular junction complexes composed of tight junctions (TJ), adherens junctions, and desmosomes. Tight cell junctions serve as a physical barrier to prevent solutes ...

Androgen is the active metabolic product, 5alpha-Dihydrotestosterone, which is produced from the transformation of Testosterone catalyzed by the Steroid-5-alpha-reductase, alpha polypeptides 1 and 2 (S5AR1 and S5AR2) [1], [2]. ...

Estrogen receptor 1 (ESR1) is a major ligand-activated transcription factor, member of the family nuclear receptors [1]. ESR1 acts via two main pathways: a ligand-dependent and ligand-independent manner [2]. Activated by a ligand, ESR1 ...

In addition to the conventional hormone-dependent regulation of activity of Estrogen receptor alpha and beta (ESR1(nuclear) and ESR2 respectively), there is a cross-talk between signal transduction pathways and estrogen receptors [1]. Epidermal growth factor (EGF), ...

Activins are the members of the Transforming growth factor beta (TGF-beta) superfamily which participate in regulation of several biological processes, including cell differentiation and cell ...

ATP-binding transporters are transmembrane proteins that utilize the energy of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) hydrolysis to carry out certain biological processes including translocation of various substrates across membranes. They transport a variety of substrates across extra- and intracellular membranes, ...

Pigmentation in mammals is stimulated mainly by Alpha-melanocyte stimulating hormone (alpha-MSH) and ...

Androgen and Estrogen receptors (Androgen receptor and ESR1 (nuclear)) function as steroid-hormone activated transcription factors. Upon binding the hormone ligand, receptors dissociate from accessory proteins, translocate into the nucleus, dimerize, and then stimulate transcription ...