Extracellular stimuli elicit changes in gene expression in target cells by activating intracellular protein kinase cascades that phosphorylate transcription factors within the nucleus. One of the best characterized stimulus-induced transcription factors is cyclic AMP (cAMP) responsive element binding ...

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways regulate a variety of physiological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptotic cell death. To date, three MAPK pathways have been characterized in detail. The extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) pathway is activated by a large ...