Apoptosis is an evolutionarily conserved type of programmed cell death essential for development, homeostasis, and self-defense against infection. It can be triggered by a number of factors including UV- or gamma-irradiation, chemotherapeutic drugs, or signaling by death receptors. There are two ...

Caspases are the central components of the apoptotic response. The apoptotic caspases are generally divided into two classes: the initiator caspases, which include caspase-2, -8, -9 and -10 and the effector caspases, which include caspases-3, -6 and -7. ...

The Tumor protein p53 (p53) plays a critical role in safeguarding the integrity of the genome. Upon activation, p53 binds to the enhancer/promoter elements of downstream target genes and regulates their transcription, through which it initiates cellular programs that account for most ...

Death receptors such as FasR belong to a Tumour Necrosis Factor (TNF) superfamily of receptors involved in proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. FasR is ubiquitously expressed in various tissues, but its ligand FasL is expressed mainly in activated T lymphocytes and natural ...

The tumor necrosis factor (TNF-alpha) is a potent cytokine produced by many cell types, including macrophages, monocytes, lymphocytes, keratinocytes and fibroblasts, in response to inflammation, infection, injury and other environmental challenges. TNF-alpha elicits a particularly broad ...

Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways regulate a variety of physiological processes, such as cell growth, differentiation, and apoptotic cell death. To date, three MAPK pathways have been characterized in detail. The extracellular regulated kinase (ERK) pathway is activated by a large ...

Activation by ligands of G-protein coupled receptors that interact with the trimeric G-protein alpha-12/beta/gamma causes the exchange of GDP for GTP bound to G protein alpha subunits followed by dissociation of the beta/gamma heterodimers. Free alpha and beta/gamma subunits are active and ...

RAC-alpha serine/threonine kinases (AKTs) are crucial mediators of various cellular process, such as apoptosis, regulation of cell cycle, protein synthesis and regulation of metabolism. The activity of AKT is modulated by various proteins, including Phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K), Phosphoinositide-dependent ...

Efficient and coordinated synthesis of the second messengers, including Inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3), Diacylglycerol (DAG), and Phosphatidylinositol-3,4,5-trisphosphate (PI(3,4,5)P3), is necessary for normal cell functioning. Production of secondary messengers is regulated ...

BAD induces apoptosis by inhibiting antiapoptotic BCL-2-family members - BCL-x, Bcl-2, thereby allowing two other pro-apoptotic proteins, BAK ...